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Riga 2: '''Al-Mina''' (in [[Lingua araba\|arabo]]: "il porto") è il nome moderna dato da [[Leonard Woolley]] a un antico porto commerciale sulla [[Mar Mediterraneo\|costa mediterranea]] della [[Grande Siria]] settentrionale, in prossimità dell'estuario dell'[[Oronte]], vicino a [[Samandağ]], nella [[Provincia di Hatay]] in [[Turchia]]. ~~== Style and structure ==~~ ~~===Language and mood===~~ ''A Wizard of Earthsea'' and other novels of the Earthsea cycle differ notably from Le Guin's early [[Hainish cycle]] works, although they were written at a similar time.{{sfn\|Slusser\|1976\|pp=32–35}} George Slusser described the Earthsea works as providing a counterweight to the "excessive pessimism" of the Hainish novels.{{sfn\|Slusser\|1976\|pp=32–35}} He saw the former as depicting individual action in a favorable light, in contrast to works such as "[[Vaster than Empires and More Slow]]".{{sfn\|Slusser\|1976\|pp=32–35}} The ''Encyclopedia of Science Fiction'' said the book was pervaded by a "grave joyfulness".{{sfn\|Nicholls\|1995b}} In discussing the style of her fantasy works, Le Guin herself said that in fantasy it was necessary to be clear and direct with language, because there is no known framework for the reader's mind to rest upon.{{sfn\|Slusser\|1976\|pp=32–35}} ==Archaeology== The story often appears to assume that readers are familiar with the geography and history of Earthsea, a technique which allowed Le Guin to avoid [[exposition (narrative)\|exposition]]:{{sfn\|Cadden\|2005\|pp=86–88}} a reviewer wrote that this method "gives Le Guin's world the mysterious depths of Tolkien's, but without his tiresome back-stories and versifying".{{sfn\|Craig\|2003}} In keeping with the notion of an epic, the narration switches from looking ahead into Ged's future and looking back into the past of The site was excavated in 1936 by [[Leonard Woolley]], who considered it to be an early [[Colonies in antiquity\|Greek trading colony]], founded a little before 800 BC, in direct competition with the [[Phoenicia]]ns to the south. He argued that substantial amounts of [[Greek pottery]] at the site established its early [[Euboea]]n connections, while the Syrian and Phoenician cooking pottery reflected a cultural mix typical of an [[Marketplace\|emporium]]. Disappointed in not finding a [[Bronze-Age]] port, Woolley soon moved his interests to the earlier, more [[:wikt:urbane\|urbane]] site of [[Alalakh]]. Woolley's critics point out that he discarded coarse undecorated utilitarian wares, and that the relative numbers of Greek, Syrian and Phoenician populations have not been established.<ref name="Lehmann2005">Lehmann (2005)</ref> The controversy whether Al Mina is to be regarded as a native Syrian site, with Syrian architecture and cooking pots and a Greek presence, or as an [[Iron Age]] Greek trading post, has not been resolved.<ref>R. Kearsley, "Greeks Overseas in the 8th Century B.C.: Euboeans, Al Mina and Assyrian Imperialism,"; J. Boardman, "The Excavated History of Al Mina," in ''Ancient Greeks West and East'', ed. G. Tsetskhladze (Leiden, Boston, 1999); Waldbaum (1997)</ref> Earthsea.{{sfn\|Cadden\|2005\|pp=86–88}} At the same time, Slusser described the mood of the novel as "strange and dreamlike", fluctuating between objective reality and the thoughts in Ged's mind; some of Ged's adversaries are real, while others are phantoms.{{sfn\|Slusser\|1976\|pp=35–38}} This narrative technique, which Cadden characterizes as "free indirect discourse" makes the narrator of the book seem sympathetic to the protagonist, and does not distance his thoughts from the reader.{{sfn\|Cadden\|2005\|pp=91–93}} Al-Mina has been largely overlooked in popular surveys.<ref>Such as Eric M. Meyers (ed.), ''The Oxford Encyclopaedia of Archaeology in the Near East'' 1997, which barely makes passing reference</ref> Later work considered Al-Mina as key to understanding the role of early Greeks in the east at the outset of the [[Orientalizing period]] of Greek cultural history. ~~===Myth and epic===~~ ''A Wizard of Earthsea'' has strong elements of an [[epic (genre)\|epic]]; for instance, Ged's place in Earthsea history is described at the very beginning of the book in the following terms: "some say the greatest, and surely the greatest voyager, was the man called Sparrowhawk, who in his day became both dragonlord and Archmage."{{sfn\|Cadden\|2005\|pp=86–88}} The story also begins with words from the Earthsea song "The Creation of Éa", which forms a ritualistic beginning to the book.{{sfn\|Cadden\|2005\|pp=86–88}} The teller of the story then goes on to say that it is from Ged's youth, thereby establishing context for the rest of the book.{{sfn\|Cadden\|2005\|pp=86–88}} In comparison with the protagonists of many of Le Guin's other works, Ged is superficially a typical hero, a mage who sets out on a quest.{{sfn\|Rochelle\|2001\|p=48}} Reviewers have compared ''A Wizard of Earthsea'' to epics such as ''[[Beowulf]]''.{{sfn\|White\|1999\|p=24}} Scholar Virginia White argued that the story followed a structure common to epics in which the protagonist begins an adventure, faces trials along the way, and eventually returns in triumph. White went on to suggest that this structure can be seen in the series as a whole, as well as in the individual volumes.{{sfn\|White\|1999\|pp=32–33}} Woolley identified Al-Mina with [[Herodotus]]' [[Amphilochus (brother of Alcmaeon)\|Posideion]], but more recent scholarship places Posideion at [[Ras al-Bassit]].<ref>Waldbaum (1997), Lane Fox (2008) remarks on the frequency of ''Posideion'' as a Greek placename along coastlines.</ref> [[Robin Lane Fox]]<ref>Lane Fox, ''Travelling Heroes in the Epic Age of Homer'' 2008:97ff</ref> has made a case for the Greek name of the site to have been the '''Potamoi Karon''' that is mentioned in [[Diodorus Siculus]]'<ref>Diodorus Siculus, 19.79.6</ref> account of [[Ptolemy I Soter]]'s ravaging of the coastline in 312 BC; he notes its unusual word order and suggestively links it to ''karu'', "trading post", in the inscription text of [[Tiglath-Pileser III]]'s conquests, which would give "River(s) of the Trading Posts".<ref>Lane Fox gives as a parallel the Greek ''Koile Syria'', which A. Schalit (1954) and M. Sartre (1988) correctly identified as a Greek transcription of Aramaic ''kul'', "whole, entire" (Lane Fox 2008: notes to ch. 7, p 378f).</ref> Woolley, on separate grounds, dated the final extinction of the Al-Mina settlement to the late fourth century BC, perhaps damaged during construction of the port of [[Seleucia Pieria]] just to the north. Lane Fox suggests instead this same voyage of coastal destruction was undertaken by Ptolemy in 312 BC. Le Guin subverted many of the tropes typical to such "monomyths"; the protagonists of her story were all [[Person of color\|dark-skinned]], in comparison to the [[White people\|white-skinned]] heroes more traditionally used; the Kargish antagonists, in contrast, were white-skinned, a switching of race roles that has been remarked upon by multiple critics.{{sfn\|Kuznets\|1985}}{{sfn\|Rochelle\|2001\|pp=48, 53}}{{sfn\|Bernardo\|Murphy\|2006\|p=92}} Critics have also cited her use of characters from multiple class backgrounds as a choice subversive to conventional Western fantasy.{{sfn\|Bernardo\|Murphy\|2006\|p=92}} At the same time, reviewers questioned Le Guin's treatment of gender in ''A Wizard of Earthsea'', and the original trilogy as a whole. Le Guin, who later became known as a [[Feminism\|feminist]], chose to restrict the use of magic to men and boys in the first volume of Earthsea.{{sfn\|Craig\|2003}} Initial critical reactions to ''A Wizard of Earthsea'' saw Ged's gender as incidental.{{sfn\|Nodelman\|1995\|p=182}} In contrast, ''The Tombs of Atuan'' saw Le Guin intentionally tell a female coming-of-age story, which was nonetheless described as perpetuating a male-dominated model of Earthsea.{{sfn\|Butler\|2012}} ''Tehanu'' (1990), published as the fourth volume of ''Earthsea'' 18 years after the third, has been described both by Le Guin and her commentators as a feminist re-imagining of the series, in which the power and status of the chief characters are reversed, and the patriarchal social structure questioned.{{sfn\|Hollindale\|2003}}{{sfn\|Hatfield\|1993\|p=43}}{{sfn\|Cadden\|2005\|p=98}} Commenting in 1993, Le Guin wrote that she could not continue [Earthsea after 1972] until she had "wrestled with the angels of the feminist consciousness".{{sfn\|Hollindale\|2003}} == Note == Several critics have argued that by combining elements of epic, ''Bildungsroman'', and young adult fiction, Le Guin succeeded in blurring the boundaries of conventional genres.{{sfn\|Cadden\|2005\|p=99}} In a 1975 commentary Francis Molson argued that the series should be referred to as "ethical fantasy", a term which acknowledged that the story did not always follow the tropes of heroic fantasy, and the moral questions that it raised. The term did not become popular.{{sfn\|White\|1999\|pp=25–27}} A similar argument was made by children's literature critic Cordelia Sherman in 1985; she argued that ''A Wizard of Earthsea'' and the rest of the series sought "to teach children by dramatic example what it means to be a good adult".{{sfn\|White\|1999\|p=38}} <references/> ==Bibliografia== {{cite book\|title=The Greeks Overseas: Their Early Colonies and Trade\|last=Boardman\|first=John\|authorlink=John Boardman (art historian)\|year=1980\|publisher=Thames and Hudson\|location=London\|isbn=0-500-25069-3\|url-access=registration\|url=https://archive.org/details/greeksoverseas00boar}} ——— (1990). "Al-Mina and history" ''Oxford Journal of Archaeology'' '''9''' pp 169–90. {{DOI\|10.1111/j.1468-0092.1990.tb00221.x}} Braun, T.F.R.G. (1982). "The Greeks in the Near East" in ''Cambridge Ancient History'' III.3 (Cambridge University Press) {{cite book\|title=The Orientalizing Revolution: Near Eastern Influences on Greek Culture in the Early Archaic Age\|last=Burkert\|first=Walter\|authorlink=Walter Burkert\|year=1992\|publisher=Harvard University Press\|location=Cambridge, MA\|isbn=0-674-64363-1}} Coldstream, J.N. (1982). "Greeks and Phoenicians in the Aegean" and P.J. Riis "Griechen in Phönizien" in H.G. Niemeyer, ''Phönizier im Westen.'' Mainz, pp 261–72 and 237-55. {{ISBN\|3-8053-0486-2}} Lane Fox, Robin (2008) ''Travelling Heroes in the Epic Age of Homer'' (New York:Knopf) In the UK ''Travelling Heroes: Greeks and Their Myths in the Epic Age of Homer''(London: Allen Lane, Penguin Books), 2008 Lehmann, G. (2005). “Al-Mina and the East: A Report on Research in Progress,” in Alexandra Villing (ed.), ''The Greeks in the East.'' London: British Museum Research Publication vol. 157, pp. 61–92. {{ISBN\|0-86159-157-7}} {{cite book\|title=Ports of Trade: Al Mina and Geometric Greek Pottery in the Levant\|last=Luke\|first=Joanna\|year=2003\|publisher=Archaeopress\|location=Oxford\|isbn=1-84171-478-X}} {{cite journal\|last=Waldbaum\|first=Jane C.\|year=1997\|title=Greeks ''in'' the East or Greeks ''and'' the East?: Problems in the Definition and Recognition of Presence\|journal=Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research\|volume=305\|pages=1–17 : https://www.jstor.org/stable/1357743\|doi=10.2307/1357743}} {{cite journal\|last=Woolley\|first=Leonard \|authorlink=Leonard Woolley\|year=1948\|title=The Date of Al-Mina\|journal=[[Journal of Hellenic Studies]]\|volume=68\|pages=148\|doi=10.2307/626304}} *——— (1953). ''A Forgotten Kingdom'' (Harmondsworth: Penguin)

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