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Nel [[1881]] [[papa Leone XIII]] commissionò a teologici e pensatori uno studio del corporativismo al fine di darne una definizione. Nel [[1884]] [[Friburgo]] la commissione così costituita dichiarò che il corporativismo fosse un "sistema di organizzazione sociale che ha come fondamento il raggruppamento degli uomini in comunità fondate sui loro interessi e sulle loro funzioni sociali. Tali gruppi, in quanto veri e propri organi di Stato dirigono e coordinano il lavoro e il capitale in per quanto riguarda l'interesse collettivo".<ref name="Wiarda, Howard J. 1996. Pp. 35"/>
Il corporativismo è correlato al concetto [[sociologia|sociologico]] di [[funzionalismo strutturale]].<ref name="Adler, Franklin Hugh Pp. 349">Adler, Franklin Hugh.''Italian Industrialists from Liberalism to Fascism: The Political Development of the Industrial Bourgeoisie, 1906–34''. Pp. 349</ref>
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[[Kinship]]-based corporatism emphasizing [[clan]], ethnic, and family identification has been a common phenomenon in [[Africa]], [[Asia]], and [[Latin America]]. [[Confucianism|Confucian]] societies based upon families and clans in East Asia and Southeast Asia have been considered types of corporatism. [[China]] has strong elements of [[clan corporatism]] in its society involving legal norms concerning family relations.<ref>Bao-Er. China's Neo-traditional Rights of the Child. Blaxland, Australia: Lulu.com, 2006. Pp. 19.</ref> [[Islam]]ic societies often feature strong clans which form the basis for a community-based corporatist society.<ref name="Wiarda, Howard J 1996. Pp. 10"/>
===Corporativismo nella Chiesa cattolica===
During the [[Middle Ages]], the [[Catholic Church]] sponsored the creation of various institutions including brotherhoods, monasteries, religious orders, and military associations, especially during the [[Crusades]] to sponsor association between these groups. In [[Italy]], various function-based groups and institutions were created, including universities, [[guild]]s for artisans and craftspeople, and other professional associations.<ref name="Wiarda, Howard J. 1996. Pp. 31">Wiarda, Howard J., pp. 31.</ref> The creation of the guild system is a particularly important aspect of the history of corporatism because it involved the allocation of power to regulate trade and prices to guilds, which is an important aspect of corporatist economic models of economic management and [[class collaboration]].<ref name="Wiarda, Howard J. 1996. Pp. 31"/>
Corporatism's popularity increased in the late 19th century, and a ''corporatist internationale'' was formed in 1890, followed by the publishing of ''[[Rerum novarum]]'' by the Catholic Church that for the first time declared the Church's blessing to trade unions and recommended for organized labour to be recognized by politicians.<ref>Wiarda, Howard J., pp. 37.</ref> Many corporatist unions in Europe were endorsed by the Catholic Church to challenge the [[Anarchism|anarchist]], [[Marxism|Marxist]] and other radical unions, with the corporatist unions being fairly conservative in comparison to their radical rivals.<ref>Wiarda, Howard J., pp. 38.</ref> Some Catholic corporatist states include Austria under the leadership of Federal Chancellor [[Engelbert Dollfuss]], and Ecuador under the leadership of [[Garcia Moreno]]. In response to the Roman Catholic corporatism of the 1890s, [[Protestantism|Protestant]] corporatism was developed, especially in [[Germany]], the [[Netherlands]], and [[Scandinavia]].<ref>Wiarda, Howard J., pp. 39.</ref> However, Protestant corporatism has been much less successful in obtaining assistance from governments than its Roman Catholic counterpart.<ref>Wiarda, Howard J., pp. 41.</ref>
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In social psychology and biology, researchers have found the presence of [[corporate group]] social organization amongst animal species.<ref name="Murchison, Carl Allanmore 1967. Pp. 150"/> Research has shown that [[penguin]]s are known to reside in densely populated corporate breeding colonies.<ref name="Murchison, Carl Allanmore 1967. Pp. 150"/>
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Ancient Greece developed early concepts of corporatism. [[Plato]] developed the concept of a [[Totalitarianism|totalitarian]] and [[Communitarianism|communitarian]] corporatist system of natural-based classes and natural [[Social hierarchy|social hierarchies]] that would be organized based on function, such that groups would cooperate to achieve social harmony by emphasizing [[collective]] interests while rejecting individual interests.<ref name="Adler, Franklin Hugh Pp. 349"/>
[[Aristotle]] in ''[[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]]'' also described society as being divided along natural classes and functional purposes that were priests, rulers, slaves, and warriors.<ref name="Wiarda, Howard J. 1996. Pp. 29">Wiarda, Howard J., pp. 29.</ref> Ancient Rome adopted Greek concepts of corporatism into their own version of corporatism but also added the concept of political representation on the basis of function that divided representatives into military, professional, and religious groups and created institutions for each group known as ''[[wikt:colegio|colegios]]''<ref name="Wiarda, Howard J. 1996. Pp. 29"/> ({{lang-la|[[wikt#Latin:collegium|collegia]]}}). See [[Collegium (ancient Rome)]].
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Absolute monarchies during the late Middle Ages gradually subordinated corporatist systems and corporate groups to the authority of centralized and [[Autocracy|absolutist]] governments, resulting in corporatism being used to enforce [[social hierarchy]].<ref name="Wiarda, Howard J. 1996. Pp. 33">Wiarda, Howard J., pp. 33.</ref>
After the French Revolution, the existing absolutist corporatist system was abolished due to its endorsement of social hierarchy and special "corporate privilege" for the Roman Catholic Church. The new French government considered corporatism's emphasis on group rights as inconsistent with the government's promotion of individual rights. Subsequently corporatist systems and corporate privilege throughout Europe were abolished in response to the French Revolution.<ref name="Wiarda, Howard J. 1996. Pp. 33"/> From 1789 to the 1850s, most supporters of corporatism were [[Reactionary|reactionaries]].<ref name="Wiarda, Howard J. 1996. Pp. 35">Wiarda, Howard J., pp. 35.</ref> A number of reactionary corporatists favoured corporatism in order to end liberal [[capitalism]] and restore the [[feudalism|feudal system]].<ref name="J. Barry Jones 2001. Pp. 243">R. J. Barry Jones. ''Routledge Encyclopedia of International Political Economy: Entries A-F''. Taylor & Frances, 2001. Pp. 243.</ref>
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From the 1850s onward [[Progressivism|progressive]] corporatism developed in response to [[classical liberalism]] and [[Marxism]].<ref name="Wiarda, Howard J. 1996. Pp. 35"/> These corporatists supported providing group rights to members of the middle classes and working classes in order to secure cooperation among the classes. This was in opposition to the Marxist conception of [[class conflict]]. By the 1870s and 1880s, corporatism experienced a revival in Europe with the creation of workers' unions that were committed to negotiations with employers.<ref name="Wiarda, Howard J. 1996. Pp. 35"/>
[[Ferdinand Tönnies]] in his work ''[[Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft|Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft]]'' ("Community and Society") of 1887 began a major revival of corporatist philosophy associated with the development of [[Neo-medievalism]] and increased promotion of [[guild socialism]], and causing major changes of theoretical [[sociology]]. Tönnies claims that [[Organicism|organic]] communities based upon clans, communes, families, and professional groups are disrupted by the mechanical society of economic classes imposed by capitalism.<ref name="Peter F. Klarén 1986. Pp. 221">Peter F. Klarén, Thomas J. Bossert. Promise of development: theories of change in Latin America. Boulder, Colorado, USA: Westview Press, 1986. Pp. 221.</ref> The National Socialists used Tönnies' theory to promote their notion of ''[[Volksgemeinschaft]]'' ("people's community").<ref>Francis Ludwig Carsten, Hermann Graml. ''The German resistance to Hitler''. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California, USA: University of California Press. Pp. 93</ref> However Tönnies opposed [[Nazism]] and joined the [[Social Democratic Party of Germany]] in 1932 to oppose fascism in Germany and was deprived of his honorary professorship by [[Adolf Hitler]] in 1933.<ref>Ferdinand Tönnies, José Harris. ''Community and civil society''. Cambride University Press, 2001 (first edition in 1887 as ''Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft''). Pp. xxxii-xxxiii.</ref>
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[[File:Emile Durkheim.jpg|thumb|200px|left|[[Émile Durkheim]].]]
Sociologist [[Émile Durkheim]] advocated a form of corporatism termed "solidarism" that advocated creating an [[Organicism|organic]] [[social solidarity]] of society through functional representation.<ref name="Antony Black 1984. P226">Antony Black, pp. 226.</ref> Solidarism was based upon Durkheim's view that the dynamic of human society as a [[collective]] is distinct from that of an individual, in that society is what places upon individuals their cultural and social attributes.<ref>Antony Black, pp. 223.</ref>
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Durkheim claimed that in the economy, solidarism would alter the division of labour by changing it from the mechanical [[social solidarity|solidarity]] to organic solidarity. Durkheim claimed that the existing industrial [[Capitalism|capitalist]] division of labour caused "juridical and moral ''[[anomie]]''" which had no norms or agreed procedures to resolve conflicts resulting in chronic confrontation between employers and trade unions.<ref name="Antony Black 1984. P226"/> Durkheim believed that this anomie caused social [[dislocation]] and claimed that by this "[i]t is the law of the strongest which rules, and there is inevitably a chronic state of war, latent or acute".<ref name="Antony Black 1984. P226"/> As a result, Durkheim claimed it is a moral obligation of the members of society to end this situation by creating a moral organic solidarity based upon professions as organized into a single public institution.<ref>Antony Black, pp. 226, 228.</ref>
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[[File:John-stuart-mill-sized.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Portrait of [[John Stuart Mill]]]]
The idea of [[liberal corporatism]] has also been attributed to English liberal philosopher [[John Stuart Mill]] who discussed corporatist-like economic associations as needing to "predominate" in society to create equality for labourers and give them influence with management by [[economic democracy]].<ref>Gregg, Samuel. ''The commercial society: foundations and challenges in a global age''. Lanham,USA; Plymouth, UK: Lexington Books, 2007. Pp. 109</ref> Unlike some other types of corporatism, liberal corporatism does not reject capitalism or [[individualism]], but believes that the capitalist companies are social institutions that should require their managers to do more than maximize [[net income]], by recognizing the needs of their employees.<ref name="Waring, Stephen P. 1994. Pp. 193">Waring, Stephen P. ''Taylorism Transformed: Scientific Management Theory Since 1945''. University of North Carolina Press, 1994. Pp. 193.</ref>
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[[Liberal corporatism]] was an influential component of the [[Progressivism in the United States]] that has been referred to as "interest group liberalism".<ref name="Wiarda, Howard J. 1996. Pp. 134">Wiarda, Howard J., pp. 134.</ref> In the [[United States]], economic corporatism involving capital-labour cooperation was influential in the [[New Deal]] economic program of the United States in the 1930s as well as in [[Keynesianism]] and even [[Fordism]].<ref name="J. Barry Jones 2001. Pp. 243"/>
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Fascism's theory of economic corporatism involved management of sectors of the economy by government- or privately- controlled organizations (corporations). Each trade union or employer corporation would, theoretically, represent its professional concerns, especially by negotiation of labour contracts and the like. This method, it was theorized, could result in [[Class collaboration|harmony amongst social classes]].<ref>[[Mark Mazower]], ''Dark Continent: Europe's 20th Century'' p. 29 ISBN 0-679-43809-2</ref> Authors have noted, however, that ''de facto'' economic corporatism was also used to reduce opposition and reward political loyalty.<ref>"Fascism." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 15 April 2010 [http://search.eb.com/eb/article-219369].</ref>
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In 1933, Salazar stated, "Our Dictatorship clearly resembles a fascist dictatorship in the reinforcement of authority, in the war declared against certain principles of democracy, in its accentuated nationalist character, in its preoccupation of social order. However, it differs from it in its process of renovation. The fascist dictatorship tends towards a pagan [[Caesarism]], towards a state that knows no limits of a legal or moral order, which marches towards its goal without meeting complications or obstacles. The Portuguese New State, on the contrary, cannot avoid, not think of avoiding, certain limits of a moral order which it may consider indispensable to maintain in its favour of its reforming action".<ref>''Studies: An Irish Quarterly Review'' Vol. 92, No. 368, Winter, 2003</ref>
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During the post-[[World War II]] reconstruction period in Europe, corporatism was favoured by [[Christian democracy|Christian democrats]] (often under the influence of [[Catholic social teaching]]), [[National conservatism|national conservatives]], and [[Social democracy|social democrats]] in opposition to liberal capitalism. This type of corporatism became unfashionable but revived again in the 1960s and 1970s as "neo-corporatism" in response to the new economic threat of [[stagflation|recession-inflation]].
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Attempts in the United States to create neo-corporatist capital-labor arrangements were unsuccessfully advocated by [[Gary Hart]] and [[Michael Dukakis]] in the 1980s. [[Robert Reich]] as U.S. Secretary of Labor during the Clinton administration promoted neo-corporatist reforms.<ref name="Waring, Stephen P. 1994. Pp. 194">Waring, Stephen P. ''Taylorism Transformed: Scientific Management Theory Since 1945''. University of North Carolina Press, 1994. Pp. 194.</ref>
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Chinese corporatism, as described by [[Jonathan Unger]] and Anita Chan in their essay ''China, Corporatism, and the East Asian Model'':<ref>[http://ips.cap.anu.edu.au/psc/ccc/publications/papers/JUAC_China_Corporatism.pdf "China，Corporatism，and the East Asian Model"]. By Jonathan Unger and Anita Chan, 1994.</ref>
<blockquote>"at the national level the state recognizes one and only one organization (say, a national labour union, a business association, a farmers' association) as the sole representative of the sectoral interests of the individuals, enterprises or institutions that comprise that organization's assigned constituency. The state determines which organizations will be recognized as legitimate and forms an unequal partnership of sorts with such organizations. The associations sometimes even get channelled into the policy-making processes and often help implement state policy on the government's behalf."
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The use of corporatism as a framework to understand the central state's behaviour in China has been criticized by authors such as Bruce Gilley and William Hurst.<ref>Bruce Gilley (2011) "[http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10670564.2011.565181#.UhTA27FzZrQ Paradigms of Chinese Politics: Kicking Society Back Out]", ''Journal of Contemporary China'' 20(70).</ref><ref>William Hurst (2007) "The City as the Focus: The Analysis of Contemporary Chinese Urban Politics’, ''China Information'' 20(30).</ref> Other scholars such as Jennifer Hsu and Reza Hasmath have argued the framework is still useful for analyzing China's local state behaviour and its engagement with social actors.<ref>Jennifer Hsu and Reza Hasmath (2014) “[http://ssrn.com/abstract=2211248 The Local Corporatist State and NGO Relations in China]”, ''Journal of Contemporary China'' 23(87).</ref><ref>Jennifer Hsu and Reza Hasmath (2013) ''The [http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415640725/ Chinese Corporatist State: Adaptation, Survival and Resistance]''. New York: Routledge.</ref><ref>Reza Hasmath and Jennifer Hsu (2009) ''[http://www.palgrave.com/page/detail/china-in-an-era-of-transition-reza-hasmath/?K=9780230613508 China in an Era of Transition: Understanding Contemporary State and Society Actors]''. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.</ref>
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On October 9, 2007, an article signed by [[Viktor Cherkesov]], head of the Russian Drug Enforcement Administration, was published in ''[[Kommersant]]'', where he used the term "corporativist state" in a positive way to describe the evolution of Russia. He claimed that the administration officials detained on criminal charges earlier that month are the exception rather than the rule and that the only development scenario for Russia that is both realistic enough and relatively favorable is to continue evolution into a corporativist state ruled by security service officials.<ref>Cherkesov, Viktor. [http://www.kommersant.ru/doc.aspx?DocsID=812840 Нельзя допустить, чтобы воины превратились в торговцев]. ''[[Kommersant]]'' #184 (3760), October 9, 2007. [http://www.robertamsterdam.com/2007/10/viktor_cherkesov_on_the_spy_wa.htm English translation] and [http://www.robertamsterdam.com/2007/10/grigory_pasko_a_cry_from_a_jar.htm Comments] by [[Grigory Pasko]]</ref>
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