Ebraismo e schiavitù: differenze tra le versioni
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Riga 13:
* "The Jews of Newport seem not to have pursued the [slave trading] business consistently ... [When] we compare the number of vessels employed in the traffic by all merchants with the number sent to the African coast by Jewish traders ... we can see that the Jewish participation was minimal. It may be safely assumed that over a period of years American Jewish businessmen were accountable for considerably less than two percent of the slave imports into the West Indies" - Professor Jacob R. Marcus of Hebrew Union College in ''The Colonial American Jew'' (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1970), Vol. 2, pp. 702-703 (cited in [http://www.nizkor.org/ftp.cgi/orgs/american/wiesenthal.center/ftp.py?orgs/american/wiesenthal.center//web/historical-facts Shofar FTP Archive File: orgs/american/wiesenthal.center//web/historical-facts])
* "None of the major slave-traders was Jewish, nor did Jews constitute a large proportion in any particular community. ... probably all of the Jewish slave-traders in all of the Southern cities and towns combined did not buy and sell as many slaves as did the firm of Franklin and Armfield, the largest Negro traders in the South." - Bertram W. Korn, ''Jews and Negro Slavery in the Old South, 1789-1865'', in ''The Jewish Experience in America'', ed. Abraham J. Karp (Waltham, Massachusetts: American Jewish Historical Society, 1969), Vol 3, pp 197-198 (cited in [http://www.nizkor.org/ftp.cgi/orgs/american/wiesenthal.center/ftp.py?orgs/american/wiesenthal.center//web/historical-facts Shofar FTP Archive File: orgs/american/wiesenthal.center//web/historical-facts])
* "[There were] Jewish owners of plantations, but altogether they constituted only a tiny proportion of the Southerners whose habits, opinions, and status were to become decisive for the entire section, and eventually for the entire country. ... [Only one Jew] tried his hand as a plantation overseer even if only for a brief time." - Bertram W. Korn, "Jews and Negro Slavery in the Old South, 1789-1865", ''The Jewish Experience in America'', ed. Abraham J. Karp (Waltham, Massachusetts: American Jewish Historical Society, 1969), Vol 3, p. 180 (cited in [http://www.nizkor.org/ftp.cgi/orgs/american/wiesenthal.center/ftp.py?orgs/american/wiesenthal.center//web/historical-facts Shofar FTP Archive File: orgs/american/wiesenthal.center//web/historical-facts])</ref>, in quanto gli ebrei non ebbero un impatto né significativo né continuo sulla [[storia della schiavitù]] nel [[Nuovo Mondo]] (vedi [[Schiavismo nelle colonie spagnole del Nuovo Mondo]])<ref name=Finkelman/><ref name=refutations/><ref name="Davis 1984 89">{{Cita pubblicazione|cognome=Davis|nome=David Brion|anno=1984|titolo=Slavery and Human Progress|città=New York|editore=Oxford University Press|p=89|url=http://www.nizkor.org/ftp.cgi/orgs/american/wiesenthal.center/ftp.py?orgs/american/wiesenthal.center//web/historical-facts}}</ref><ref name="adl.org">[http://www.adl.org/special_reports/farrakhan_own_words2/on_slave_trade.asp Anti-Semitism. Farrakhan In His Own Words. On Jewish Involvement in the Slave Trade] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070921191044/http://www.adl.org/special_reports/farrakhan_own_words2/on_slave_trade.asp |data=21 settembre 2007 }} and [http://www.adl.org/main_Nation_of_Islam/jew_hatred_as_history.htm ''Nation of Islam. Jew-Hatred as History''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070808004341/http://www.adl.org/main_Nation_of_Islam/jew_hatred_as_history.htm |data=8 agosto 2007 }}. adl.org (December 31, 2001).</ref>. Possedettero in termini generali molti meno schiavi dei non ebrei in tutti i territori del [[Vicereame della Nuova Spagna]] ed in nessun periodo svolsero un ruolo di primo piano come finanziatori, armatori o agenti negli scambi durante la [[tratta atlantica degli schiavi africani]]<ref name="oieahc.wm.edu">Wim Klooster (University of Southern Maine): {{collegamento interrotto|1=[http://oieahc.wm.edu/wmq/Jan00/klooster.pdf Review of ''Jews, Slaves, and the Slave Trade: Setting the Record Straight'' by Eli Faber] |date=novembre 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}. "Reappraisals in Jewish Social and Intellectual History", ''William and Mary Quarterly Review of Books. Volume LVII, Number 1'', Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture (2000){{ISBN missing}}</ref>.
Gli ebrei coloniali continentali americani importarono schiavi africani ad un tasso del tutto proporzionale a quello della popolazione generale. Come venditori il loro ruolo risultò ancora più marginale, anche se il coinvolgimento nel commercio brasiliano (vedi [[schiavitù in Brasile]]) e nei [[Caraibi]] sembra essere stato notevolmente più significativo<ref name=ColumbiaHistory>[https://books.google.com/books?id=JIBM5JEYM1gC&pg=PA43 ''The Columbia History of Jews and Judaism in America'', p. 43], by Rabbi Marc Lee Raphael, (Columbia University Press, February 12, 2008); {{ISBN|978-0231132220}}. "During the 1990s, allegations that Jews financed, dominated, and controlled the slave trade captured wide attention and were widely accepted in the African American community (on the latter point, see [[Henry Louis Gates Jr.]]'s "Black Demagogues and Pseudo-Scholars", ''New York Times'', July 20, 1992, p A15). Subsequent extensive research demonstrated this was not the case, see David Brion Davis, "Jews in the Slave Trade", ''Culturefront'' (Fall 1992): 42-45<br />* Seymour Drescher, "The Role of Jews in the Transatlantic Slave Trade", ''Immigrants and Minorities'' 12 (1993): 113-25<br />Eli Faber, ''Jews, Slaves, and the Slave Trade: Setting the Record Straight'' (New York, 1998)<br />Saul S. Friedman, ''Jews and the American Slave Trade'' (New Brunswick, NJ, 1998).<br />For numerical data demonstrating the minute role played by mainland colonial Jews in the importation of slaves from Africa and the Caribbean and their marginal role as slave sellers, see Faber, ''Jews, Slaves, and the Slave Trade'', pp 131-42"; retrieved from Google Books on January 28, 2013.</ref>. Jason H. Silverman, storico della schiavitù, descrive la parte svolta dagli ebrei nel commercio degli schiavi negli [[Stati Uniti meridionali]] come "minuscolo" facendo notare che l'aumento storico prima e la caduta della pratica schiavista poi nel [[profondo Sud]] non avrebbe mai influenzato gli ebrei in quanto essi non vivevano allora nel Sud americano se non in numeri minimali<ref name="Rodriguez, p 385">Rodriguez, p 385</ref>.
Riga 156:
La ''[[Tanakh]]'' contiene chiare istruzioni per il riscatto di schiavi ebrei di proprietà di non ebrei (''[[Libro del Levitico]] 25: 47-51''). Molti ebrei vennero condotti a [[Roma]] in qualità di prigionieri di guerra<ref name="je" /><ref>[[Tacito]], ''Annali'', 2:85</ref><ref>[[Svetonio]], ''Vita di Tiberio'', 36</ref>; come risposta il ''[[Talmud]]'' istituì delle linee guida per emancipare i correligionari, dando l'avvertimento però di non pagare prezzi eccesivi in quanto ciò avrebbe potuto incoraggiare i pagani a schiavizzare altri ebrei<ref>Hezser, p 43</ref>. [[Giuseppe Flavio]], lui stesso un ex schiavo, osserva che la fedeltà degli schiavi ebrei non mancò di venire apprezzata dai proprietari<ref>Josephus, ''[[Antichità giudaiche]]''</ref>; questa potrebbe essere stata una delle ragioni principali della loro liberazione<ref name="je" />.
In epoca medievale riscattare gli schiavi ebrei acquisì sempre più importanza e fino al XIX secolo le congregazioni ebraiche affacciate attorno al [[Mar Mediterraneo]] formarono delle associazioni propriamente a questo scopo<ref>Abrahams, p 96</ref>. Le comunità ebraiche riscattarono normalmente i prigionieri ebrei seguendo una [[Mitzvah]] riguardante la redenzione dei prigionieri (la "Pidyon Shvuyim")<ref>[http://www.myjewishlearning.com/daily_life/GemilutHasadim/Social_Welfare/PidyonShvuyim.htm Ransoming Captive Jews. An important commandment calls for the redemption of Jewish prisoners, but how far should this mitzvah be taken?] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927184438/http://www.myjewishlearning.com/daily_life/GemilutHasadim/Social_Welfare/PidyonShvuyim.htm |data=27 settembre 2007 }} by Rabbi David Golinkin</ref>.
Nella sua ''Storia degli Ebrei'' [[Paul Johnson (storico)]] ha scritto; "''gli ebrei sono stati particolarmente apprezzati come prigionieri, in quanto si credeva, di solito correttamente, che anche se essi stessi fossero poveri, una comunità ebraica da qualche parte potesse sempre essere persuasa a riscattarli... A [[Venezia]] Le congregazioni levantine e portoghesi ebraiche hanno istituito un'organizzazione speciale per il riscatto dei prigionieri ebraici presi dai cristiani dalle navi turche, i mercanti ebraici hanno pagato una tassa speciale su tutti i beni per sostenerla, il che ha agito probabilmente come una forma di assicurazione in quanto vittime"''"<ref>[[Paul Johnson (storico)|Paul Johnson]]: ''A History of the Jews''. 1987. p.240</ref>.
Riga 216:
David Brion Davis ha scritto che "''gli ebrei non hanno avuto un impatto importante o continuo sulla storia della schiavitù nel [[Nuovo Mondo]]''"<ref>"Medieval Christians greatly exaggerated the supposed Jewish control over trade and finance and also became obsessed with alleged Jewish plots to enslave, convert, or sell non-Jews ... Most European Jews lived in poor communities on the margins of Christian society; they continued to suffer most of the legal disabilities associated with slavery. ... Whatever Jewish refugees from Brazil may have contributed to the northwestward expansion of sugar and slaves, it is clear that Jews had no major or continuing impact on the history of New World slavery." - Professor David Brion Davis of Yale University in ''Slavery and Human Progress'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984), p 89 (cited in [http://www.nizkor.org/ftp.cgi/orgs/american/wiesenthal.center/ftp.py?orgs/american/wiesenthal.center//web/historical-facts Shofar FTP Archive File: orgs/american/wiesenthal.center//web/historical-facts])</ref>; mentre Jacob R. Marcus ha affermato che la partecipazione ebraica allo schiavismo presente nelle colonie americane fu minima e del tutto inconsistente<ref>"The Jews of Newport seem not to have pursued the [slave trading] business consistently ... [When] we compare the number of vessels employed in the traffic by all merchants with the number sent to the African coast by Jewish traders ... we can see that the Jewish participation was minimal. It may be safely assumed that over a period of years American Jewish businessmen were accountable for considerably less than two percent of the slave imports into the West Indies" - Professor Jacob R. Marcus of Hebrew Union College in ''The Colonial American Jew'' (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1970), Vol. 2, pp. 702-03 (cited in [http://www.nizkor.org/ftp.cgi/orgs/american/wiesenthal.center/ftp.py?orgs/american/wiesenthal.center//web/historical-facts Shofar FTP Archive File: orgs/american/wiesenthal.center//web/historical-facts])</ref>.
Bertram Korn ha scritto: "''tutti gli schiavisti ebrei presenti nelle città del [[profondo Sud]] non hanno acquistato e venduto tanti schiavi quanti la ditta "Franklin and Armfield Office" di [[Alexandria (Virginia)]], la più grande sede di commercianti di schiavi negri presente negli [[Stati Uniti meridionali]]"''"<ref>"None of the major slavetraders was Jewish, nor did Jews constitute a large proportion in any particular community. ... probably all of the Jewish slavetraders in all of the Southern cities and towns combined did not buy and sell as many slaves as did the firm of Franklin and Armfield, the largest Negro traders in the South." - Bertram W. Korn. ''Jews and Negro Slavery in the Old South, 1789–1865'', in ''The Jewish Experience in America'', ed. Abraham J. Karp (Waltham, Massachusetts: American Jewish Historical Society, 1969), Vol 3, pp 197-98 (cited in [http://www.nizkor.org/ftp.cgi/orgs/american/wiesenthal.center/ftp.py?orgs/american/wiesenthal.center//web/historical-facts] Shofar FTP Archive File at {{collegamento interrotto|1=[http://orgs/american/wiesenthal.center//web/historical-facts] |date=novembre 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }})</ref>.
Secondo un riesame compiuto da ''The Journal of American History'' ed intitolato ''Jews, Slaves, and the Slave Trade: Setting the Record Straight and Jews and the American Slave Trade'': "''Eli Faber riconosce solo pochi commercianti di origine ebraica localmente prominenti nell'ambito dello schiavismo durante la seconda metà del XVIII secolo, altrimenti conferma le davvero piccole e minuscole dimensioni concernenti le comunità ebraiche coloniali di qualsiasi sorta e li mostra impegnati nella schiavitù e nel commercio schiavista solo a livelli indistinguibili da quelli dei loro concorrenti inglesi''"<ref>"Eli Faber takes a quantitative approach to Jews, Slaves, and the Slave Trade in Britain's Atlantic empire, starting with the arrival of Sephardic Jews in the London resettlement of the 1650s, calculating their participation in the trading companies of the late seventeenth century, and then using a solid range of standard quantitative sources (Naval Office shipping lists, censuses, tax records, and so on) to assess the prominence in slaving and slave owning of merchants and planters identifiable as Jewish in Barbados, Jamaica, New York, Newport, Philadelphia, Charleston, and all other smaller English colonial ports. He follows this strategy in the Caribbean through the 1820s; his North American coverage effectively terminates in 1775. Faber acknowledges the few merchants of Jewish background locally prominent in slaving during the second half of the eighteenth century but otherwise confirms the small-to-minuscule size of colonial Jewish communities of any sort and shows them engaged in slaving and slave holding only to degrees indistinguishable from those of their English competitors" [http://www.historycooperative.org/cgi-bin/justtop.cgi?act=justtop&url=http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/jah/86.3/br_19.html Book Review] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081011182743/http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/jah/86.3/br_19.html |data=11 ottobre 2008 }} of ''Jews, Slaves, and the Slave Trade: Setting the Record Straight'', and ''Jews and the American Slave Trade'' by Saul S. Friedman. ''[[The Journal of American History]]'' Vol 86. No 3, December 1999<!-- ISBN needed --></ref>.
Secondo Seymour Drescher gli ebrei hanno partecipato al commercio della [[tratta atlantica degli schiavi african]] soltanto nei territori brasiliani coloniali portoghesi e nel [[Suriname]]<ref>Drescher: JANCAST: p 455:</ref>, tuttavia in nessuno dei periodi presi in esame hanno svolto un ruolo di primo piano in qualità di finanziatori, armatori o fattori negli scambi e nella compravendita di schiavi transatlantici o caraibici<ref name="oieahc.wm.edu"/>. Afferma inoltre che gli ebrei assai raramente stabilirono nuovi percorsi commerciali, ma che invero lavorarono in stretta collaborazione con partner cristiani sulle vie commerciali che erano state stabilite e approvate dai leader nazionali europei<ref>Drescher, EAJH — Vol 1. "The available evidence indicates that the Jewish network probably counted for little in Atlantic slaving. The few cases of long-term Jewish participation in the eighteenth-century slave trades offer evidence of cross-religious networks as keys to their success. In case after case, Jews who participated in multiple slaving voyages ... linked themselves to Christian agents or partners. It was not as Jews, but as merchants, that traders ventured into one of the great enterprises of the early modern world." Drescher, in Ency Am. J. Hist. p 416.</ref><ref>Drescher, pp 107-108</ref>.
Riga 224:
Nel 1995 l'[[American Historical Association]] (AHA) ha rilasciato una dichiarazione, insieme a Drescher, in cui condanna "qualsiasi affermazione secondo cui gli ebrei avrebbero avuto un ruolo sproporzionato nel commercio degli schiavi atlantici"<ref name="ajh">Encyclopedia of American Jewish history, Volume 1, p 199</ref>.
Secondo la rivista ''The Journal of American History'' (''Jews, Slaves, and the Slave Trade: Setting the Record Straight'' di Faber e ''Jews and the American Slave Trade'' di Friedman: "''Eli Faber prende un approccio quantitativo tra gli ebrei e gli schiavi nel commercio atlantico dell'[[impero britannico]], a cominciare dall'arrivo degli ebrei [[Sefarditi]] nell'insediamento di [[Londra]] del 1650, calcolando la loro partecipazione alle società commerciali della fine del XVII secolo e quindi utilizzando una solida gamma di fonti quantitative standard (liste di spedizioni degli uffici navali, censimenti, registrazioni fiscali e così via) per valutare la prominenza nell'ambito dello [[schiavismo]], nel possesso di schiavi da parte dei mercanti e nelle piantagioni identificabili come ebraiche situate a [[Barbados]], [[Giamaica]], [[New York]], [[Newport (Rodhe Island)]], [[Filadelfia]], [[Charleston (Carolina del Sud)]] e in tutti gli altri porti coloniali inglesi minori''"<ref>[http://www.historycooperative.org/cgi-bin/justtop.cgi?act=justtop&url=http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/jah/86.3/br_19.html Book Review] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081011182743/http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/jah/86.3/br_19.html |data=11 ottobre 2008 }} of ''Jews, Slaves, and the Slave Trade: Setting the Record Straight'' (by Faber), and ''Jews and the American Slave Trade'' (by Friedman), at ''The Journal of American History'', Vol 86, No 3 (December 1999)</ref>.
Lo storico Ralph Austen riconosce tuttavia che "gli ebrei Sefarditi nel [[Nuovo Mondo]] rimasero stati fortemente coinvolti nel commercio degli schiavi africani"<ref>Ralph A. Austen, "The Uncomfortable Relationship: African Enslavement in the Common History of Blacks and Jews," Maurianne Adams and John H. Bracey, ed., Strangers and Neighbors: Relations Blacks and Jews in the United States (Amherst: The University of Massachusetts Press, 1999), 131.</ref>.
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