Transizione tra Ming e Qing: differenze tra le versioni

Sotto il regno di Dorgon, che gli storici hanno chiamato in vari modi "la mente della conquista dei Qing" historians have variously called "the mastermind of the Qing conquest"<ref>{{cita|Dai, 2009|p. 15}}</ref> e "l'artefice principale della grande impresa manciù",<ref>{{cita|Wakeman, 1985|p. 893}}</ref> i Qing sottomisero l'area della capitale, ricevettero la capitolazione delle elite e dei funzionari locali di [[Shandong]], e conquistarono [[Shanxi]] e [[Shaanxi]]. Rivolsero poi gli occhi sulla ricca regione commerciale e agricola di [[Jiangnan]] a sud del basso [[Fiume Azzurro]]. Spazzarono via gli ultimi resti dei regimi rivali creati da [[Li Zicheng]] (ucciso nel 1645) e [[Zhang Xianzhong]] ([[Chengdu]] presa all'inizio del 1647). Infine, riuscirono a uccidere i pretendenti al trono dei [[Ming Meridionali]] a [[Nanjing]] (1645) e [[Fuzhou]] (1646) e a cacciare [[Zhu Youlang]], l'ultimo imperatore dei Ming del sud, fuori da [[Guangzhou]] (1647) nel lontano sud-ovest della Cina.

 

 

 

 

Manchus were living in cities with walls surrounded by villages and adopting Chinese-style agriculture well before the Qing conquest of the Ming,<ref>{{cita|Wakeman, 1985|p. 43 [https://books.google.com/books?id=8nXLwSG2O8AC&pg=PA43]}}</ref> and there was an established tradition of Han Chinese-Manchu mixing before 1644. The Han Chinese soldiers on the Liaodong frontier often mixed with non-Han tribesmen and were largely acculturated to their ways.<ref>{{cita|Wakeman, 1985|p. 39 [https://books.google.com/books?id=8nXLwSG2O8AC&pg=PA39]}}</ref> The Jurchen Manchus accepted and assimilated Han Chinese soldiers who went over to them,<ref>{{cita|Wakeman, 1985|p. 42 [https://books.google.com/books?id=8nXLwSG2O8AC&pg=PA42]}}</ref> and Han Chinese soldiers from Liaodong often adopted and used Manchu names. Indeed Nurhaci's secretary Dahai may have been one such individual.<ref>{{cita|Wakeman, 1985|p. 44 [https://books.google.com/books?id=8nXLwSG2O8AC&pg=PA44]}}</ref>

 

So many Han defected to the Qing and swelled up the ranks of the Eight Banners that ethnic Manchus became a minority within the Banners, making up only 16% in 1648, with Han Bannermen dominating at 75% and Mongol Bannermen making up the rest.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=cpfgQNWXpyoC&pg=PA141&dq=16+percent+manchu+bannermen+1648&hl=en Naquin 1987], p. 141.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=sZt0TgTAgPoC&pg=PA146&dq=16+percent+manchu+bannermen+1648&hl=en Fairbank, Goldman 2006], p. 2006.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://pages.uoregon.edu/inaasim/Mingqing04/Qing3.htm|title=Summing up Naquin/Rawski|author=|date=|website=pages.uoregon.edu}}</ref> It was this multi-ethnic force in which Manchus were only a minority, which conquered China for the Qing.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=gAIcwz3V_JsC&pg=PA175&dq=The+conquest+of+China+was+achieved+by+these+combined+banner+forces,+in+which+less+than+16+percent+of+the+soldiers+by+1648+were+actually+of+Manchu+origin&hl=en eds. Watson, Ebrey 1991], p. 175.</ref> In 1644, China was invaded by an army that had only a fraction of Manchus, the invading army was multi-ethnic, with Han Banners, Mongols Banners, and Manchu Banners, the political barrier was between the commoners made out of Han Chinese (non bannermen) and the "conquest elite", made out of Han Chinese bannermen, nobles, and Mongols and Manchu, it was not ethnicity which was the factor.<ref>{{cite book |editor1=James A. Millward |editor2=Ruth W. Dunnell |editor3=Mark C. Elliott |editor4=Philippe Forêt |title=New Qing Imperial History: The Making of Inner Asian Empire at Qing Chengde |url=https://books.google.com/?id=6qFH-53_VnEC&pg=PA16&dq=created+a+multi-ethnic+force+composed+of+Jurchen,Mongols,+and+%E2%80%9Ctransfrontiersmen%E2%80%9D+which+they+organized+into+Manchu,Mongol,+and+%E2%80%9CHan%E2%80%9D+banners.+The+banners+were+military+units+which+alsoserved+as+units+of+household+registration+for+the+Manchus+and+their+allies.Manchus+comprised+only+a+fraction+of+the+army+that+swept+into+China+in1644. |date=31 July 2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-36222-6 |pages=16–}}</ref> The Ming's takeover by the Qing was done by the multi-ethnic Han Banners, Mongol Banners, and Manchu Banners which made up the Qing military.<ref name="Rawski1998 2">{{cite book |author=Evelyn S. Rawski |title=The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5iN5J9G76h0C&pg=PA61#v=onepage&q&f=false |date=15 November 1998 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-92679-0 |pages=61–}}</ref> Han Chinese Nikan bannermen used banners of black color and Nurhaci was guarded by Han Nikan soldiers.<ref name="Crossley2000">{{cite book|author=Pamela Kyle Crossley|title=A Translucent Mirror: History and Identity in Qing Imperial Ideology|url=https://books.google.com/?id=Wn4iv_RJv8oC&pg=PA95&dq=black+nikan+banners#v=onepage&q=black%20nikan%20banners&f=false|date=15 February 2000|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-92884-8|pages=95–}}</ref> Other banners became a minority compared to the Han Chinese Nikan Black Banner detachments during Nurhaci's reign.<ref name="Kagan2010">{{cite book|author=Kimberly Kagan|title=The Imperial Moment|url=https://books.google.com/?id=Ai1_5IHQ9vsC&pg=PA95&dq=nikan+banners#v=onepage&q=nikan%20banners&f=false|date=3 May 2010|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-05409-7|pages=95–}}</ref>

 

{{quote |text=The conquest of the Empire, after the Manchus had securely seated themselves in Peking, had to be undertaken largely with Chinese troops, simply " stiffened " a little with a Manchu regiment here and there.|author=E.H. Parker |source=The Financial Capacity of China; Journal of the North-China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society<ref>{{cite journal |last=Parker |first=E.H. |title=The Financial Capacity of China |journal=Journal of the North-China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society |volume=XXX |year=1899 |edition= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=isJFAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA75 |page=75 |accessdate=1 April 2013 |ref=harv}}</ref>}}

 

[[File:WuSangui.jpg|297x297px|thumb|right|[[Wu Sangui]] was a general of the [[Ming dynasty]], who later defected to the [[Qing dynasty]]. However, his hopes to restore the former were dashed after he rebelled against the [[Kangxi Emperor]].]]

 

When the Qing imposed the Queue Order in China, many Han defectors were appointed in the massacre of dissidents. Li Chengdong, a former Ming general who had defected to the Qing faction<ref>{{cita|Faure, 2007|p. 164}}</ref>, oversaw three massacres in [[Jiading district|Jiading]] that occurred within the same month; together which resulted in tens of thousands of deaths and left cities depopulated.<ref name="Ebrey">{{cita|Ebrey, 1993}}</ref>

 

In Guangzhou, massacres of Ming loyalists and civilians in 1650 were carried out by Qing forces under the command of [[Shang Kexi]] and [[Geng Jimao]].<ref name="Roberts2011">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=GZNiAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA139&dq=The+invasion+of+the+south+began+in+1649+and+in+the+following+year+Guangzhou+was+captured+and+sacked+by+Shang+Kexi,+a+Chinese+bannerman+who+had+switched+to+the+Manchu+side+in+1634.+Resistance+in+mainland+China+had+now+effectively+...#v=onepage&q=The%20invasion%20of%20the%20south%20began%20in%201649%20and%20in%20the%20following%20year%20Guangzhou%20was%20captured%20and%20sacked%20by%20Shang%20Kexi%2C%20a%20Chinese%20bannerman%20who%20had%20switched%20to%20the%20Manchu%20side%20in%201634.%20Resistance%20in%20mainland%20China%20had%20now%20effectively%20...&f=false9|title=A History of China|author=John A.G. Roberts|date=13 July 2011|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-0-230-34411-2|pages=139–}}</ref><ref name="Roberts1999">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=gWKDgM3_z-oC&q=The+invasion+of+the+south+began+in+1649+and+in+the+following+year+Guangzhou+was+captured+and+sacked+by+Shang+Kexi,+a+Chinese+bannerman+who+had+switched+to+the+Manchu+side+in+1634.+Resistance+in+mainland+China+had+now+effectively+...&dq=The+invasion+of+the+south+began+in+1649+and+in+the+following+year+Guangzhou+was+captured+and+sacked+by+Shang+Kexi,+a+Chinese+bannerman+who+had+switched+to+the+Manchu+side+in+1634.+Resistance+in+mainland+China+had+now+effectively+...|title=A Concise History of China|author=J. A. G. Roberts|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=1999|isbn=978-0-674-00075-9|page=142}}</ref>

 

On the orders of Nurhaci<ref>{{cita|Wakeman, 1985|p. 44 [https://books.google.com/books?id=8nXLwSG2O8AC&pg=PA44]}}</ref> in 1629,<ref>{{cita|Shou-p'ing, 1855|p. xxxvi}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Translation of the Ts'ing wan k'e mung, a Chinese Grammar of the Manchu Tartar Language; with introductory notes on Manchu Literature: (translated by A. Wylie.) |url=https://books.google.com/?id=v6k-AAAAcAAJ&pg=PR36&dq=Before+1629+received+the+imperial+command+to+translate+into+Manchu+the+Statistics+of+the+Ming+dynasty+Military+Code+Three+Outlines+of+Military+Tactics+which+work+was+completed+in+1631+Six+Packets+of+Military+rules#v=onepage&q=Before%201629%20received%20the%20imperial%20command%20to%20translate%20into%20Manchu%20the%20Statistics%20of%20the%20Ming%20dynasty%20Military%20Code%20Three%20Outlines%20of%20Military%20Tactics%20which%20work%20was%20completed%20in%201631%20Six%20Packets%20of%20Military%20rules&f=false |year=1855 |publisher=Mission Press |pages=xxxvi–}}</ref>

a number of Chinese works considered to be of critical importance were translated into Manchu by Dahai.<ref name="Chan2009">{{cite book |author=Sin-wai Chan |title=A Chronology of Translation in China and the West: From the Legendary Period to 2004 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=YKUG4HbPV0EC&pg=PA60&dq=dahai+translated+military+texts#v=onepage&q=dahai%20translated%20military%20texts&f=false |year=2009 |publisher=Chinese University Press |isbn=978-962-996-355-2 |pages=60–61}}</ref> The first works translated were all Chinese military texts dedicated to the arts of war due to the Manchu interests in the topic.<ref>{{cita|Durrant, 1977|p. 53}}</ref> They were the [[Six Secret Teachings|Liu-t'ao]] 六韜, Su-shu [[w:zh:素書|素書]], and [[Three Strategies of Huang Shigong|San-lueh]] 三略 followed by the military text [[Wuzi|Wu-tzu]] and Sun-Tzu's work [[The Art of War]]. [[The Art of War]] was translated into [[Manchu language|Manchu]] as {{MongolUnicode|ᠴᠣᠣᡥᠠᡳ<br>ᠪᠠᡳᡨᠠ<br>ᠪᡝ<br>ᡤᡳᠰᡠᡵᡝᠩᡤᡝ}} Wylie: Tchauhai paita be gisurengge,<ref>{{cita|Shou-p'ing, 1855|p. 39}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://library.umac.mo/ebooks/b31043252.pdf |title = Archived copy |accessdate=February 29, 2016 |deadurl = yes |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20140903220030/http://library.umac.mo/ebooks/b31043252.pdf |archivedate=September 3, 2014 }}</ref> [[Transliterations of Manchu|Möllendorff]]: Coohai baita de gisurengge, Discourse on the art of War.<ref>{{cita|Von Mollendorff, 1890|p. 40}}</ref> Another later Manchu translation was made by Aisin Gioro Qiying.<ref>{{cita|Mair, 2008|p. 82}}</ref>