|
===Costituzione di eserciti misti con disertori Han===
ManchusI weremanciù livingvivevano in citiescittà withcon wallsmura surroundedcircondate byda villagesvillaggi ande adoptingadottarono Chinese-stylel'agricoltura agriculturein wellstile beforecinese theben Qingprima conquestdella ofconquista dei Qing thesui Ming,<ref>{{cita|Wakeman, 1985|p. 43 [https://books.google.com/books?id=8nXLwSG2O8AC&pg=PA43]}}</ref> ande therec'era wasuna anconsolidata establishedtradizione traditiondi ofmescolanza Han Chinesecinesi-ManchuManciù mixingprima beforedel 1644. TheI Hansoldati Chinesecinesi Han soldierssulla onfrontiera thedel Liaodong frontiersi oftenmescolavano mixedspesso withcon le tribù non-Han tribesmene anderano in weregran largelyparte acculturatedacculturati tonei theirloro waysmodi.<ref>{{cita|Wakeman, 1985|p. 39 [https://books.google.com/books?id=8nXLwSG2O8AC&pg=PA39]}}</ref> TheI manciù Jurchen Manchusaccettarono ed assimilarono le acceptedusanze anddei assimilatedsoldati Han Chinesecinesi soldiersche whosi wenterano overavvicinati toa themloro,<ref>{{cita|Wakeman, 1985|p. 42 [https://books.google.com/books?id=8nXLwSG2O8AC&pg=PA42]}}</ref> ande, Hanmutuamente, Chinesei soldierssoldati fromHan Liaodongcinesi oftendi adoptedLiaodong andspesso usedadottavano Manchunomi namesmanciù. IndeedIn Nurhaci'seffetti secretaryil segretario di Nurhaci, Dahai, maypotrebbe haveessere beenstato oneuno suchdi individualloro.<ref>{{cita|Wakeman, 1985|p. 44 [https://books.google.com/books?id=8nXLwSG2O8AC&pg=PA44]}}</ref>
ThereC'erano weretroppo toopochi fewManciù ethnicetnici Manchusper toconquistare conquerla ChinaCina, butma theyassorbirono absorbedi defeatedmongoli Mongols,sconfitti ande, morecosa importantlypiù importante, addedaggiunsero Hani Chinesecinesi toHan theagli EightOtto BannersBandiere.<ref>{{cita|Graff Higham, 2012|p. 116 [https://books.google.com/books?id=Sn3QpyJn9JIC&pg=PA116]}}</ref> TheI Manchusmanciù haddovettero tocreare create an entireun'intera "Jiu Han jun" (Oldl'antica armata Han Army) duea tocausa thedell'elevatissimo verynumero largedi numbersoldati ofcinesi Han Chineseassorbiti soldiersnegli absorbedOtto into the Eight BannersBandiere, bysia bothcome captureprigionieri andche defectiondisertori. TheI Qing showeddimostrarono thatche thei Manchusmanciù valuedapprezzavano militaryle skillsabilità inmilitari nella propaganda targetedmirata towardsai themilitari Ming militaryper tofarli getdisertare themverso to defect to thei Qing, sincedal themomento Mingche civilianil politicalsistema systempolitico discriminatedcivile againstMing discriminava thei militarymilitari.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=8piRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA6 Di Cosmo 2007], p. 6.</ref> FromNel periodo 1618 - 1631 Manchusi receivedmanciù Hanreclutarono Chinesedisertori defectorscinesi andHan theire descendantsi becameloro discendenti divennero Han Bannermendelle andBandiere thosee killedquelli uccisi in battlebattaglia werefurono commemoratedcommemorati ascome martyrsmartiri innelle biographiesbiografie.<ref name="Wakeman2009 3">{{cite book|author=Frederic E. Wakeman|title=Telling Chinese History: A Selection of Essays|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rDjoJNdZCuMC&pg=PA99#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=2009|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-25606-4|pages=99–}}</ref>
Hong[[Huang Taiji]] recognizedriconobbe thatche Mingi disertori Han Chinesecinesi defectorsdell'esercito wereMing needederano innecessari orderper togiungere assistalla inconquista thedell'impero conquestMing, ofspiegando theai Ming,manciù explainingperché toavevano otherbisogno Manchusdi whytrattare hecon neededindulgenza toil treatdisertore thedel Ming, defector Generalgenerale Hong Chengchou leniently.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Cambridge History of China: Pt. 1 ; The Ch'ing Empire to 1800 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hi2THl2FUZ4C&pg=PA65 |year=1978 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-24334-6 |pages=65–}}</ref> HongHuang Taiji understoodcomprese thatche thei Ming wouldnon sarebbero stati facilmente sconfitti a notmeno beche easilyle defeatedtruppe unlesscinesi Han, Chineseche troopssapevano wieldingusare musketmoschetti ande cannoncannoni, werenon usedfossero alongsideentrate thea far parte delle BannersBandiere.<ref name="CrossleySiu2006">{{cite book|author1=Pamela Kyle Crossley|author2=Helen F. Siu|author3=Donald S. Sutton|title=Empire at the Margins: Culture, Ethnicity, and Frontier in Early Modern China|url=https://books.google.com/?id=EtNVMUx9qIIC&pg=PA43&dq=nikan+banners#v=onepage&q=nikan%20banners&f=false|date=January 2006|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-23015-6|pages=43–}}</ref> IndeedIn effetti, amongtra thegli uomini delle BannersBandiere, gunpowderle weaponsarmi likeda musketsfuoco, andcome artilleryi weremoschetti specificallye usedl'artiglieria, byerano theusate Chinesein modo specifico dai Bannerscinesi.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=8piRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA23#v=onepage&q&f=false Di Cosmo 2007], p. 23.</ref> TheI ManchusManciù establishedcrearono anI artilleryprimi corpsreparti madedi outartiglieria, ofcon Hansoldati Chinesecinesi soldiersHan, innel 1641.<ref>{{cita|Graff Higham, 2012|p. 117 [https://books.google.com/books?id=Sn3QpyJn9JIC&pg=PA117]}}</ref> TheL'uso usedell'artiglieria, ofda artilleryparte bydegli Han Bannermendelle mayBandiere, havepotrebbe ledessere tostato themil beingmotivo knownper asil quale erano conosciuti come soldati "heavypesanti" soldiers (ujen cooha).<ref name="Nolan2008">{{cite book|author=Cathal J. Nolan|title=Wars of the Age of Louis XIV, 1650-1715: An Encyclopedia of Global Warfare and Civilization: An Encyclopedia of Global Warfare and Civilization|url=https://books.google.com/?id=Nn_61ts-hQwC&pg=PA30&dq=black+nikan+banners#v=onepage&q=black%20nikan%20banners&f=false|date=30 July 2008|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-35920-0|pages=30–}}</ref> TheI "[[Hongyipao|redcannoni coatcolorati cannon]]di rosso" werefacevano partparte ofdell'armamentario thedegli Han army (Liaodong Han Chinesecinesi di Liaodong) servingpresenti thenell'esercito dei Qing.<ref>{{cite book |author=John Ross |title=The Manchus: Or The Reigning Dynasty of China; Their Rise and Progress |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g-xBAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA198#v=onepage&q&f=false |year=1880 |publisher=J. and R. Parlane |pages=198–}}</ref>
Gli ufficiali Ming officersche whodisertarono defecteda tofavore thedei Qing werevennero allowedautorizzati tomantenere retainil theirloro previousprecedente militarygrado rankmilitare.<ref>{{cita|Gregory, 2015|p. 84}}</ref> The Qing received the defection of Shen Zhixiang in 1638.<ref>{{cite book|title=Chʻing Shih Wen Tʻi|url=https://books.google.com/?id=3nMzAAAAMAAJ&q=The+capitulator+in+this+case+of+1638,+Shen+Zhixiang,+made+a+critical+addition+to+Hung+Taiji%27s+war+machine,+but+his+late&dq=The+capitulator+in+this+case+of+1638,+Shen+Zhixiang,+made+a+critical+addition+to+Hung+Taiji%27s+war+machine,+but+his+late|year=1989|publisher=Society for Qing Studies|page=70}}</ref> AmongTra thegli otheraltri ufficiali Han officersche whodisertarono defecteda tofavore thedei Qing werec'erano Ma Guangyuan, Wu Rujie, Zu Dashou, Quan Jie, Geng Zhongming, Zu Zehong, Zu Zepu, Zu Zerun, Deng Changchun, Wang Shixian, Hong Chengchou, Shang Kexi, Liu Wuyuan, Zu Kefa, Zhang Cunren, Meng Qiaofang, Kong Youde, Sun Dingliao.<ref>{{cite book|title=Chʻing Shih Wen Tʻi|url=https://books.google.com/?id=3nMzAAAAMAAJ&dq=The+capitulator+in+this+case+of+1638%2C+Shen+Zhixiang%2C+made+a+critical+addition+to+Hung+Taiji%27s+war+machine%2C+but+his+late&q=shen+zhixiang|year=1989|publisher=Society for Qing Studies|page=97}}</ref> AristocraticAi anddisertori militarycinesi ranks,vennero silver,dati horsestitoli andnobiliari officiale positionsmilitari, wereargento, givencavalli toe Hanposizioni Chineseufficiali. defectorsTra likeI beneficiari, Zhang Cunren, Sun Dingliao, Liu Wu, Liu Liangchen, Zu Zehong, Zu Zepu, Zu Kufa ande Zu Zerun. HanI Chinesedisertori defectorscinesi managedHan andgestirono organizede aorganizzarono massiveuna amountmassiccia ofquantità thedi strategia militarymilitare strategydopo afteril 1631.<ref>{{cite book|author=FREDERIC WAKEMAN JR.|title=The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China|url=https://books.google.com/?id=8nXLwSG2O8AC&pg=PA195&dq=dalinghe+1a+sun+dingliao#v=onepage&q=dalinghe%201a%20sun%20dingliao&f=false|year=1985|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-04804-1|pages=194–196}}</ref>
SoFurono manycosì tanti gli Han defectedche todisertarono thea favore dei Qing ande swelledandarono upad theaumentare ranksle offila thedegli EightOtto BannersBandiere thatche ethnici Manchusmanciù becameetnici adivennero minorityuna withinminoranza theche Banners,rappresentava makingsolo up onlyil 16% innel 1648, withcon gli Han Bannermen dominatingche atdominavano con 75% ande MongolI Bannermenmongoli makingrappresentavano up theil restresto.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=cpfgQNWXpyoC&pg=PA141&dq=16+percent+manchu+bannermen+1648&hl=en Naquin 1987], p. 141.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=sZt0TgTAgPoC&pg=PA146&dq=16+percent+manchu+bannermen+1648&hl=en Fairbank, Goldman 2006], p. 2006.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://pages.uoregon.edu/inaasim/Mingqing04/Qing3.htm|title=Summing up Naquin/Rawski|author=|date=|website=pages.uoregon.edu}}</ref> ItFu wasquesta thisforza multi-ethnic forcemultietnica, in whichcui Manchusi weremanciù onlyerano asolo minorityuna minoranza, whichche conqueredconquistò Chinala forCina thea favore dei Qing.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=gAIcwz3V_JsC&pg=PA175&dq=The+conquest+of+China+was+achieved+by+these+combined+banner+forces,+in+which+less+than+16+percent+of+the+soldiers+by+1648+were+actually+of+Manchu+origin&hl=en eds. Watson, Ebrey 1991], p. 175.</ref> InNel 1644, Chinala wasCina invadedfu byinvasa anda armyun thatesercito hadche onlyaveva asolo fractionuna offrazione Manchusdi manciù, thema invadingera army was multi-ethnicmultietnico, withcon Han Banners, MongolsMongoli Banners,e andManciù Manchudelle BannersBandiere, thela politicalbarriera barrierpolitica wasera betweentra thei commonerspopolani made out ofcinesi Han Chinese (non bannermendelle Bandiere) ande thela "conquestélite di eliteconquista", madecostituita outda of Han Chinese bannermencinesi, noblesnobili, andmongoli Mongolse andmanciù; Manchu,non itera wasl'etnia nota ethnicityessere whichil was thefattore factordiscriminante.<ref>{{cite book |editor1=James A. Millward |editor2=Ruth W. Dunnell |editor3=Mark C. Elliott |editor4=Philippe Forêt |title=New Qing Imperial History: The Making of Inner Asian Empire at Qing Chengde |url=https://books.google.com/?id=6qFH-53_VnEC&pg=PA16&dq=created+a+multi-ethnic+force+composed+of+Jurchen,Mongols,+and+%E2%80%9Ctransfrontiersmen%E2%80%9D+which+they+organized+into+Manchu,Mongol,+and+%E2%80%9CHan%E2%80%9D+banners.+The+banners+were+military+units+which+alsoserved+as+units+of+household+registration+for+the+Manchus+and+their+allies.Manchus+comprised+only+a+fraction+of+the+army+that+swept+into+China+in1644. |date=31 July 2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-36222-6 |pages=16–}}</ref> The MingL'sacquisizione takeoverdei byterritori theMing Qingda wasparte donedei byQing thefu multi-ethniccompiuta Handalla Banners,multietnicità Mongol Banners, and Manchu Banners which made up thedell'esercito Qing military.<ref name="Rawski1998 2">{{cite book |author=Evelyn S. Rawski |title=The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5iN5J9G76h0C&pg=PA61#v=onepage&q&f=false |date=15 November 1998 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-92679-0 |pages=61–}}</ref> Gli Han Chinesecinesi Nikan bannermendelle usedBandiere bannersavevano ofstendardi blackdi colorcolore andnero e Nurhaci wasera guardedprotetto bydai soldati Han Nikan soldiers.<ref name="Crossley2000">{{cite book|author=Pamela Kyle Crossley|title=A Translucent Mirror: History and Identity in Qing Imperial Ideology|url=https://books.google.com/?id=Wn4iv_RJv8oC&pg=PA95&dq=black+nikan+banners#v=onepage&q=black%20nikan%20banners&f=false|date=15 February 2000|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-92884-8|pages=95–}}</ref> OtherAltri bannersuomini becamedelle aBandiere minorityerano compareddiventati touna theminoranza rispetto ai distaccamenti di Han Chinesecinesi Nikan Blackdella BannerBandiera detachmentsnera duringdurante Nurhaci'sil reignregno di Nurhaci.<ref name="Kagan2010">{{cite book|author=Kimberly Kagan|title=The Imperial Moment|url=https://books.google.com/?id=Ai1_5IHQ9vsC&pg=PA95&dq=nikan+banners#v=onepage&q=nikan%20banners&f=false|date=3 May 2010|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-05409-7|pages=95–}}</ref>
===L'esercito misto schierato per l'invasione===
|
